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| Electronics Circuits And VLSI Engineering |
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| DC Circuits in Electronics |
| 2008-05-12 09:55:11 |
BASIC CONCEPTS OF ELECTRICITY · Static electricity · Conductors, insulators, and electron flow. · Electric circuits · Voltage and current · Resistance · Voltage and current in a practical circuit. · Conventional versus electron flow. OHM's LAW · How voltage, current, and resistance relate. · An analogy for Ohm's Law · Power in electric circuits · Calculating electric power, · Resistors · Nonlinear conduction, · Circuit wiring · Polarity of voltage drops · Computer simulation of electric circuits. ELECTRICAL SAFETY · The importance of electrical safety.. · Physiological effects of electricity. · Shock current path · Ohm's Law (again!) · Safe practices · Emergency response · Commo...
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| AC Circuits Index in Electronics |
| 2008-05-12 09:54:07 |
BASIC AC THEORY · What is alternating current (AC)? · AC waveforms · Measurements of AC magnitude · Simple AC circuit calculations · AC phase · Principles of radio COMPLEX NUMBERS · Introduction · Vectors and AC waveforms · Simple vector addition · Complex vector addition · Polar and rectangular notation · Complex number arithmetic · More on AC "polarity" · Some examples with AC circuits REACTANCE AND IMPEDANCE -- INDUCTIVE · AC resistor circuits.. · AC inductor circuits.. · Series resistor-inductor circuits.. · Parallel resistor-inductor circuits. · Inductor quirks. · More on the ``skin effect''. REACTANCE AND IMPEDANCE -- CAPACITIVE · AC resistor circuits. · AC capacitor ci...
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| Semiconductors in Electronics |
| 2008-05-12 09:52:29 |
TRANSMISSION LINES · A 50-ohm cable? · Circuits and the speed of light · Characteristic impedance · Finite-length transmission lines · ``Long'' and ``short'' transmission lines · Standing waves and resonance · Impedance transformation AMPLIFIERS AND ACTIVE DEVICES · From electric to electronic. · Active versus passive devices · Amplifiers · Amplifier gain · Decibels · Absolute dB scales · Attenuators SOLID-STATE DEVICE THEORY · Introduction · Quantum physics · Valence and Crystal structure. · Band theory of solids · Electrons and ``holes'' · The P-N junction · Junction diodes · . · Junction field-effect transistors. · Insulated-gate field-effect transistors (...
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| Digital Concepts In Electronics |
| 2008-05-12 09:50:33 |
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA IntroductionBoolean arithmetic Boolean algebraic identities Boolean algebraic properties Boolean rules for simplification KARNAUGH MAPPING Introduction Venn diagrams and sets Boolean Relationships on Venn Diagrams .Making a Venn diagram look like a Karnaugh mapKarnaugh maps, truth tables, and Boolean expressio...Logic simplification with Karnaugh mapsLarger 4-variable Karnaugh mapsMinterm vs maxterm solution (sum) and (product) notation Don't care cells in the Karnaugh map .Larger 5 & 6-variable Karnaugh maps . COMBINATIONAL LOGIC FUNCTIONS Introduction A Full-Adder Decoder Encoder Demultiplexers Multiplexers Using multiple ...
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| Reference Notes in Electronics |
| 2008-05-12 09:49:39 |
USEFUL EQUATIONS AND CONVERSION FACTORS DC circuit equations and laws .Series circuit rules .Parallel circuit rules .Series and parallel component equivalent values .Capacitor sizing equation .Inductor sizing equation .Time constant equations .AC circuit equations .DecibelsMetric prefixes and unit conversions .Data Color Codes Resistor Wiring Color Codes CONDUCTOR AND INSULATOR TABLES Copper wire gage table .Copper wire ampacity table .Coefficients of specific resistance .Temperature coefficients of resistance .Critical temperatures for superconductors .Dielectric strengths for insulators .Data ALGEBRA REFERENCE Basic identities Arithmetic ...
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| Some Experiments in Electronics |
| 2008-05-12 09:48:36 |
PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS INTRODUCTION Electronics as scienceSetting up a home lab Table (landscape view) .Data Table (portrait view) . BASIC CONCEPTS AND TEST EQUIPMENT Voltmeter usageOhmmeter usage A very simple circuit .Ammeter usage Ohm's Law Nonlinear resistance .Power dissipation .Circuit with a switch .Electromagnetism .Electromagnetic induction .. DC CIRCUITS IntroductionSeries batteries Parallel batteries Voltage divider Current divider Potentiometer as a voltage divider Potentiometer as a rheostat Precision potentiometer Rheostat range limiting Thermoelectricity ...
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| BASIC CONCEPTS AND TEST EQUIPMENT |
| 2008-05-12 09:09:44 |
Voltmeter usageOhmmeter usage A very simple circuit .Ammeter usage Ohm's Law Nonlinear resistance .Power dissipation .Circuit with a switch .Electromagnetism .Electromagnetic induction .....
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| DC CIRCUITS |
| 2008-05-12 09:08:59 |
IntroductionSeries batteries Parallel batteries Voltage divider Current divider Potentiometer as a voltage divider Potentiometer as a rheostat Precision potentiometer Rheostat range limiting Thermoelectricity Make your own multimeter Sensitive voltage detector Potentiometric voltmeter 4-wire resistance measurement A very simple computer Potato battery Capacitor charging and discharging Rate-of-change indicator ...
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| AC CIRCUITS 123 |
| 2008-05-12 09:08:27 |
Introduction Transformer -- power supply Build a transformer Variable inductor Sensitive audio detector Sensing AC magnetic fields Sensing AC electric fields Automotive alternator Induction motor Phase shift Sound cancellation Musical keyboard as a signal generator ..PC Oscilloscope Waveform analysis Inductor-capacitor "tank" circuit Signal coupling ...
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| DISCRETE SEMICONDUCTOR CIRCUITS |
| 2008-05-12 09:07:29 |
Introduction Commutating diode Half-wave rectifier .Full-wave center-tap rectifier .Full-wave bridge rectifier .Rectifier/filter circuit .Voltage regulator Transistor as a switch .Static electricity sensor .Pulsed-light sensor .Voltage follower Common-emitter amplifier .Multi-stage amplifier ..Current mirror JFET current regulator .Differential amplifier .Simple op-amp Audio oscillator Vacuum tube audio amplifier ....
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| ANALOG INTEGRATED CIRCUITS |
| 2008-05-12 09:06:56 |
Introduction Voltage comparator Precision voltage follower .Noninverting amplifier High-impedance voltmeter ..Integrator 555 audio oscillator 555 ramp generator PWM power controller Class B audio amplifier ....
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| DIGITAL INTEGRATED CIRCUITS |
| 2008-05-12 09:06:25 |
IntroductionBasic gate function NOR gate S-R latch NAND gate S-R enabled latch ..NAND gate S-R flip-flop .LED sequencer Simple combination lock ..3-bit binary counter 7-segment display ...
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| USEFUL EQUATIONS AND CONVERSION FACTORS |
| 2008-05-12 09:00:55 |
DC circuit equations and laws .Series circuit rules .Parallel circuit rules .Series and parallel component equivalent values .Capacitor sizing equation .Inductor sizing equation .Time constant equations .AC circuit equations .DecibelsMetric prefixes and unit conversions .Data ...
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| CONDUCTOR AND INSULATOR TABLES |
| 2008-05-12 08:59:58 |
Copper wire gage table .Copper wire ampacity table .Coefficients of specific resistance .Temperature coefficients of resistance .Critical temperatures for superconductors .Dielectric strengths for insulators .Data ...
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| ALGEBRA REFERENCE |
| 2008-05-12 08:59:25 |
Basic identities Arithmetic properties Properties of exponents Radicals Important constants Logarithms Factoring equivalencies The quadratic formula Sequences Factorials Solving simultaneous equations ...
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| TRIGONOMETRY REFERENCE |
| 2008-05-12 08:58:06 |
Right triangle trigonometry. .Non-right triangle trigonometry .Trigonometric equivalencies .Hyperbolic functions ...
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| CALCULUS REFERENCE |
| 2008-05-12 08:57:20 |
Rules for limits Derivative of a constant Common derivatives Derivatives of power functions of e .Trigonometric derivatives Rules for derivatives The antiderivative (Indefinite integral) .Common antiderivatives Antiderivatives of power functions of e ....
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| CIRCUIT SCHEMATIC SYMBOLS |
| 2008-05-12 08:54:08 |
Wires and connectionsPower sources Resistors Capacitors Inductors Mutual inductors Switches, hand actuated Switches, process actuated .Switches, electrically actuated (relays) .Connectors Diodes Transistors, bipolar Transistors, junction field-effect (JFET) ..Transistors, insulated-gate field-effect (IGFET )Transistors, hybrid Thyristors Integrated circuits Electron tubes ...
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| DIODES AND RECTIFIERS |
| 2008-05-12 08:51:44 |
· Introduction · Meter check of a diode · Diode ratings · Rectifier circuits · Peak detector · Clipper circuits · Clamper circuits · Voltage multipliers · Inductor commutating circuits · Diode switching circuits · Zener diodes · Special-purpose diodes · Other diode technologies · SPICE models ...
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| BOOLEAN ALGEBRA |
| 2008-05-12 08:46:10 |
IntroductionBoolean arithmetic Boolean algebraic identities Boolean algebraic properties Boolean rules for simplification ...
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| BASIC CONCEPTS OF ELECTRICITY |
| 2008-05-08 09:29:15 |
BASIC CONCEPTS OF ELECTRICITY · Static electricity · Conductors, insulators, and electron flow. · Electric circuits · Voltage and current · Resistance · Voltage and current in a practical circuit. · Conventional versus electron flow....
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| Introduction ELECTRON TUBES |
| 2008-05-08 06:32:42 |
An often neglected area of study in modern electronics is that of tubes, more precisely known as vacuum tubes or electron tubes. Almost completely overshadowed by semiconductor, or "solid-state" components in most modern applications, tube technology once dominated electronic circuit design. In fact, the historical transition from "electric" to "electronic" circuits really began with tubes, for it was with tubes that we entered into a whole new realm of circuit function: a way of controlling the flow of electrons (current) in a circuit by means of another electric signal (in the case of most tubes, the controlling signal is a small voltage). The semiconductor counterpart to the tube, of course, is the transistor. Transistors perform much the same function as tubes: controlling the flow ...
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| Early tube history ELECTRON TUBES |
| 2008-05-08 06:32:07 |
Thomas Edison, that prolific American inventor, is often credited with the invention of the incandescent lamp. More accurately, it could be said that Edison was the man who perfected the incandescent lamp. Edison's successful design of 1879 was actually preceded by 77 years by the British scientist Sir Humphry Davy, who first demonstrated the principle of using electric current to heat a thin strip of metal (called a "filament") to the point of incandescence (glowing white hot). Edison was able to achieve his success by placing his filament (made of carbonized sewing thread) inside of a clear glass bulb from which the air had been forcibly removed. In this vacuum, the filament could glow at white-hot temperatures without being consumed by combustion: In the course of his experime...
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| The triode ELECTRON TUBES |
| 2008-05-08 06:31:32 |
De Forest's Audion tube came to be known as the triode tube, because it had three elements: filament, grid, and plate (just as the "di" in the name diode refers to two elements, filament and plate). Later developments in diode tube technology led to the refinement of the electron emitter: instead of using the filament directly as the emissive element, another metal strip called the cathode could be heated by the filament. This refinement was necessary in order to avoid some undesired effects of an incandescent filament as an electron emitter. First, a filament experiences a voltage drop along its length, as current overcomes the resistance of the filament material and dissipates heat energy. This meant that the voltage potential between different points along the length of the filame...
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| The tetrode ELECTRON TUBES |
| 2008-05-08 06:31:03 |
As the name suggests, the tetrode tube contained four elements: cathode (with the implicit filament, or "heater"), grid, plate, and a new element called the screen. Similar in construction to the grid, the screen was a wire mesh or coil positioned between the grid and plate, connected to a source of positive DC potential (with respect to the cathode, as usual) equal to a fraction of the plate voltage. When connected to ground through an external capacitor, the screen had the effect of electrostatically shielding the grid from the plate. Without the screen, the capacitive linking between the plate and the grid could cause significant signal feedback at high frequencies, resulting in unwanted oscillations. The screen, being of less surface area and lower positive potential than the plate,...
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| Beam power tubes ELECTRON TUBES |
| 2008-05-08 06:30:31 |
In the beam power tube, the basic four-element structure of the tetrode was maintained, but the grid and screen wires were carefully arranged along with a pair of auxiliary plates to create an interesting effect: focused beams or "sheets" of electrons traveling from cathode to plate. These electron beams formed a stationary "cloud" of electrons between the screen and plate (called a "space charge") which acted to repel secondary electrons emitted from the plate back to the plate. A set of "beam-forming" plates, each connected to the cathode, were added to help maintain proper electron beam focus. Grid and screen wire coils were arranged in such a way that each turn or wrap of the screen fell directly behind a wrap of the grid, which placed the screen wires...
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| The pentode ELECTRON TUBES |
| 2008-05-08 06:29:59 |
Another strategy for addressing the problem of secondary electrons being attracted by the screen was the addition of a fifth wire element to the tube structure: a suppressor. These five-element tubes were naturally called pentodes. The suppressor was another wire coil or mesh situated between the screen and the plate, usually connected directly to ground potential. In some pentode tube designs, the suppressor was internally connected to the cathode so as to minimize the number of connection pins having to penetrate the tube envelope: The suppressor's job was to repel any secondarily emitted electrons back to the plate: a structural equivalent of the beam power tube's space charge. This, of course, increased plate current and decreased screen current, resulting in better ga...
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| Combination tubes ELECTRON TUBES |
| 2008-05-08 06:29:26 |
Similar in thought to the idea of the integrated circuit, tube designers tried integrating different tube functions into single tube envelopes to reduce space requirements in more modern tube-type electronic equipment. A common combination seen within a single glass shell was two either diodes or two triodes. The idea of fitting pairs of diodes inside a single envelope makes a lot of sense in light of power supply full-wave rectifier designs, always requiring multiple diodes. Of course, it would have been quite impossible to combine thousands of tube elements into a single tube envelope the way that thousands of transistors can be etched onto a single piece of silicon, but engineers still did their best to push the limits of tube miniaturization and consolidation. Some of these tubes, w...
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| Tube parameters ELECTRON TUBES |
| 2008-05-08 06:28:54 |
For bipolar junction transistors, the fundamental measure of amplification is the Beta ratio (β), defined as the ratio of collector current to base current (IC/IB). Other transistor characteristics such as junction resistance, which in some amplifier circuits may impact performance as much as β, are quantified for the benefit of circuit analysis. Electron tubes are no different, their performance characteristics having been explored and quantified long ago by electrical engineers. Before we can speak meaningfully on these characteristics, we must define several mathematical variables used for expressing common voltage, current, and resistance measurements as well as some of the more complex quantities: The two most basic measures of an amplifying tube's characteristics are its ...
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| Ionization (gas-filled) tubes ELECTRON TUBES |
| 2008-05-08 06:28:19 |
So far, we've explored tubes which are totally "evacuated" of all gas and vapor inside their glass envelopes, properly known as vacuum tubes. With the addition of certain gases or vapors, however, tubes take on significantly different characteristics, and are able to fulfill certain special roles in electronic circuits. When a high enough voltage is applied across a distance occupied by a gas or vapor, or when that gas or vapor is heated sufficiently, the electrons of those gas molecules will be stripped away from their respective nuclei, creating a condition of ionization. Having freed the electrons from their electrostatic bonds to the atoms' nuclei, they are free to migrate in the form of a current, making the ionized gas a relatively good conductor of electricity. In this state, ...
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| Display tubes ELECTRON TUBES |
| 2008-05-08 06:27:41 |
In addition to performing tasks of amplification and switching, tubes can be designed to serve as display devices. Perhaps the best-known display tube is the cathode ray tube, or CRT. Originally invented as an instrument to study the behavior of "cathode rays" (electrons) in a vacuum, these tubes developed into instruments useful in detecting voltage, then later as video projection devices with the advent of television. The main difference between CRTs used in oscilloscopes and CRTs used in televisions is that the oscilloscope variety exclusively use electrostatic (plate) deflection, while televisions use electromagnetic (coil) deflection. Plates function much better than coils over a wider range of signal frequencies, which is great for oscillosco...
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| Microwave tubes ELECTRON TUBES |
| 2008-05-08 06:27:02 |
For extremely high-frequency applications (above 1 GHz), the interelectrode capacitances and transit-time delays of standard electron tube construction become prohibitive. However, there seems to be no end to the creative ways in which tubes may be constructed, and several high-frequency electron tube designs have been made to overcome these challenges. It was discovered in 1939 that a toroidal cavity made of conductive material called a cavity resonator surrounding an electron beam of oscillating intensity could extract power from the beam without actually intercepting the beam itself. The oscillating electric and magnetic fields associated with the beam "echoed" inside the cavity, in a manner similar to the sounds of traveling automobiles echoing in a roadside canyon, allowing rad...
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| Tubes versus Semiconductors ELECTRON TUBES |
| 2008-05-08 06:26:10 |
Devoting a whole chapter in a modern electronics text to the design and function of electron tubes may seem a bit strange, seeing as how semiconductor technology has all but obsoleted tubes in almost every application. However, there is merit in exploring tubes not just for historical purposes, but also for those niche applications that necessitate the qualifying phrase "almost every application" in regard to semiconductor supremacy. In some applications, electron tubes not only continue to see practical use, but perform their respective tasks better than any solid-state device yet invented. In some cases the performance and reliability of electron tube technology is far superior. In the fields of high-power, high-speed circuit switching, specialized tubes such as hydrogen thyratro...
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| ElectroStatic Discharge PRACTICAL ANALOG SEMICONDUCTOR CIRCUITS |
| 2008-05-08 06:25:10 |
Volume I chapter 1.1 discusses static electricity, and how it is created. This has a lot more significance than might be first assumed, as control of static electricity plays a large part in modern electronics and other professions. An ElectroStatic Discharge event is when a static charge is bled off in an uncontrolled fashion, and will be referred to as ESD hereafter. ESD comes in many forms, it can be as small as 50 volts of electricity being equalized up to many millions of volts. The actual power is extremely small, so small that no danger is generally offered to someone who is in the discharge path of ESD. It usually takes several thousand volts for a person to even notice ESD in the form of a spark and the familiar zap that accompanies it. The problem with ESD is even a small dis...
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| Computational circuits PRACTICAL ANALOG SEMICONDUCTOR CIRCUITS |
| 2008-05-08 06:22:57 |
When someone mentions the word "computer," a digital device is what usually comes to mind. Digital circuits represent numerical quantities in binary format: patterns of 1's and 0's represented by a multitude of transistor circuits operating in saturated or cutoff states. However, analog circuitry may also be used to represent numerical quantities and perform mathematical calculations, by using variable voltage signals instead of discrete on/off states. Here is a simple example of binary (digital) representation versus analog representation of the number "twenty-five:" Digital circuits are very different from circuits built on analog principles. Digital computational circuits can be incredibly complex, and calculations must often be performed in sequential "steps" to ob...
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| Introduction OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS |
| 2008-05-08 06:20:59 |
The operational amplifier is arguably the most useful single device in analog electronic circuitry. With only a handful of external components, it can be made to perform a wide variety of analog signal processing tasks. It is also quite affordable, most general-purpose amplifiers selling for under a dollar apiece. Modern designs have been engineered with durability in mind as well: several "op-amps" are manufactured that can sustain direct short-circuits on their outputs without damage. One key to the usefulness of these little circuits is in the engineering principle of feedback, particularly negative feedback, which constitutes the foundation of almost all automatic control processes. The principles presented here in operational amplifier circuits, therefore, extend well beyond the i...
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| Single-ended and differential amplifiers OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS |
| 2008-05-08 06:20:30 |
For ease of drawing complex circuit diagrams, electronic amplifiers are often symbolized by a simple triangle shape, where the internal components are not individually represented. This symbology is very handy for cases where an amplifier's construction is irrelevant to the greater function of the overall circuit, and it is worthy of familiarization: The +V and -V connections denote the positive and negative sides of the DC power supply, respectively. The input and output voltage connections are shown as single conductors, because it is assumed that all signal voltages are referenced to a common connection in the circuit called ground. Often (but not always!), one pole of the DC power supply, either positive or negative, is that ground reference ...
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